The 1755 Earthquake That Shook a Philosophy

On November 1, 1755 -- All Saints' Day, every church full -- a magnitude 8.5 earthquake struck Lisbon, followed by a tsunami and fires. Between 30,000 and 60,000 died. Voltaire wrote Candide in response. The disaster destabilized the Enlightenment's confidence in a rational universe.

The Marquis de Pombal rebuilt the Baixa with earthquake-resistant construction and wide streets. The ruins of the Carmo Convent -- roof destroyed, never rebuilt -- stand in Chiado as the memorial: a Gothic skeleton open to the sky.